VecanVega연합원로원 Elizabeth II남편Husband남편 무서운요마, 내 몸속으로 미친듯이 기어들어와서 기생하면서 나의 것을 이용해서 전적으로 나의 것만 사용이용해서 일을 하는데, 섹스,정사, 쾌락, 부정정교, 부정사음등 섹스쾌락질은 딴 놈하고 즐기고, 일하면서 얻어지는 이익도 딴 놈에게 주고 그러면서도 매일같이 나에게 기어들어와서 같이 살려고 하는데, 마치 나를 생각하거나 나와 부부관계, 연인관계인 듯 보이게 하면서도 이게 정상적인 사람이 아닌 일종의 요마,요귀인데, 어떻게 보면, 부부관계,연인관계로 있다는 식인 듯도 보이도록 딴 사람들에게 표현하면서도 실제는 딴 놈들에게만 섹스정사 쾌락질 주고, 이익, 명예, 칭찬, 처우, 대접등 좋은 건 전부 딴 놈들에게 주면서 나와는, 하급하전민 최하위한국놈으로서 살아온 인생살이에서의 부부관계로서 행하는데, 그러면서도, 상위상급상천계에 있는 나의 다른 실체들에게는 나로서 위위형해서 나를 위해서 같이 사는 여자라든지 부부라든지 혹은 나의 그 자신이라는 식으로 표현하면서 속이며, 이 사람이 그걸 하자고 하는데, 그걸 좀 빌려달라거나 하는 수법으로 상위상천상급계의 또 다른 나를 속이고 좋은 걸 얻은후, 그걸로 또 뭔가를 하는데, 거기서 얻어지는 이익은 또 딴놈들에게만 주고, 섹스쾌락도 딴 놈에게만 주는데, 그러면서도 가장 하위의 천한 한국놈으로서의 부부관계만 유지하는데, 그나마도 제 년 보지구멍도 개방하지 않고 만들어진 최하급보지구멍을 개방하는데, 요건 부부관계하면 조금도 안 좋고 피곤만하고 사람을 죽이는 보지로서 개발된 것이며, 그러는 가운데, 부부관계에 흥미가 떨어져서 안 하면 그 안하는 정력과 차단된 정염들을 모조리 빼내어서 그걸 가지고 또 나가서 딴 놈하고 즐기고 애까지 낳고 온갖 지랄을 치는데,또 내게 와서 스며들고 기생하고, 또 내게는 내가 너를 생각해서 그렇게 해 준다는 뉘앙스를 풍기고, 재난중에 재난이고 재앙중에 재앙인 이 더러운 요귀 요마에 대해서 무조건 보지를 찢어버리고 자지를 잘라버리며, 무조건 목을 잘라서 죽여버리도록 지시명령처리기록되다. 무르데크연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조, VECAN-VEGA연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 이 개잡년으로서의 요괴 요마에 대해서 특별추적팀을 편성하여 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영속적 영구적 영겁적으로 일괄소급하여 영원에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 잡히면 참살하여 죽여버리도록 지시명령처리기록되다. 하급한국인으로서의 결혼관계를 청산토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 김선희라고 불리는 여자와의 모든 혼인관계에 종지부를 찍고 이혼토록(서기2006년 3월부 이혼처리) 지시명령처리기록되다. 마거릿힐다대처가 더러운 요귀요마로서 아무 것도 주는 것은 없이 나의 것들을 마음대로 쓰고 종국에는 내가 되어서 플레이아데스인의 지위서열등급을 그대로 도적질하기 위해서 이번에는 하급한국놈의 결혼생활까지 침입해오는데, 그것도 이재용이 놈이 내 역할을 하는 맵으로서 그렇게 하고 있으므로 이 천하의 요귀요마잡년을 무조건 발견즉시 참수형에 처하고 무조건 죽여버리도록 지시명령처리기록되다. 불리하면 총리복장으로 나타나서 바로 옆에 오며, 조폭동원한 주먹질발길질을 하지 아니하고 정상적인 분위기로 싹 바꿔놓고 유리하면 조폭폭력배데리고 들어와서 주먹질 발길질을 시키는 천하의 시정잡배같은 개잡년으로서 절대로 신분지위에 합당한 처우대접을 해주어서는 아니되는 것으로서 지시명령처리기록되다. 시정잡배, 하전민으로서 처우토록 플레이아데스연방과 플레이아데스연합과 과거플레이아데스연합과 VECAN-VEGA에서 실시실행실천토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 무르데크연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다 영국에 대해서 FIRST STAGE, SECOND STAGE모두 공히 일괄소급하여, 모든 보급물자의 지원을 완전히 끊고 모든 지원과 공급을 중단토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 아울러서 영국여왕, 영국왕의 지위를 평민왕으로 최하급왕의 지위로 격하시키도록 감급감등토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 아울러서, 중국계백인종들에 대한 분포도 조사를 실시하고, 영국왕가의 혈통에 대하여 정밀조사하여, 중국황제의 자손들에 대해서는 전원 왕실혈통에서 파문추방시키고, 중국황제의 자손을 낳아준 영국여왕 및 영국여자들에 대해서는 전원 파문후 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 영국여왕을 파문토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 영국총리 마거릿힐다대처를 파문후 중국으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 중국계백인들을 전원 고위공직에서 파면처리하며, 평민으로서만 살게하며, 원본래적백인종 민족종족으로 복구토록 지시명령처리기록되다. VECAN-VEGA연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다. 영국여왕의 남편들에 대해서 일제히 조사하여, 중국황제놈들인 경우 무조건 파문처리후 중국으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 마거릿힐다대처영국총리의 남편들에 대해서 조사하여 중국황제놈들이거나 중국놈들일 경우 무조건 파문처리후 중국으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 마거릿힐다대처년을 훈족의 본거지 몽골근처 고원으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. VECAN-VEGA연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다. 아플레이아데스 훈족선비족흉노족 고투르크족 수장놈들 전원에 대해서 체포하여 무르데크연합원로원에서 사형처리토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 무르데크연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다. Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed,[1][2] and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors.[1][3][4][5] To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.[3][4][5] It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender.[2] Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness, empathy, humility, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors. Overview and history The Birth of Venus (1486, Uffizi) is a classic representation of femininity painted by Sandro Botticelli.[6][7] Venus was a Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty and fertility. Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are.[3]: 5 Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings.[8] Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking society began during the medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s.[9] Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, or widow.[9]: 4 After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380.[10][11] In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman".[12] The idea was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman[13] and in 1990 by American philosopher Judith Butler,[14] who theorized that gender is not fixed or inherent but is rather a socially defined set of practices and traits that have, over time, grown to become labelled as feminine or masculine.[15] Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious, ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for anything requiring muscular exertion" and to project "shyness, reserve and a display of frailty, fear and incompetence".[16] Scientific efforts to measure femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their M–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists. The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured, opposite to one another, and that imbalances between them led to mental disorders.[17] Alongside the women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move away from the M–F model, developing an interest in androgyny.[17] The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests, researchers found that the two dimensions varied independently of one another, casting doubt on the earlier view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities.[17] Second-wave feminists, influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences between females and males were innate, the concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed, with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to men.[18][19] Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television, and school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors.[18] In her significant 1963 book The Feminine Mystique, American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that the key to women's subjugation lay in the social construction of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent,[20] and called for a "drastic reshaping of the cultural image of femininity."[21] Behavior and personality See also: Sex differences in psychology, Feminine psychology, and Nature versus nurture Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness,[8] supportiveness,[22][23] gentleness, [23][24] warmth,[22][24] passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness,[17] modesty, humility, empathy,[23] affection, tenderness,[22] and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding[24] have been cited as stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within societies.[22] An oil painting of a young woman dressed in a flowing, white dress sitting on a chair with a red drape. An easel rests on her knees and she is evidently drawing. She is gazing directly at the observer. Young Woman Drawing (1801, Metropolitan Museum of Art) painted by Marie-Denise Villers (possibly a self-portrait), depicts an independent feminine spirit.[25] The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by scholars, as femininity is related to women's and girls' sexual appeal to men and boys.[8] Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification.[26][27] Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine.[27] Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors.[5]: 29 [28][29] Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development.[5]: 29 [4]: 218–225 Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined.[3]: 8–9 [4]: 153–154 Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood).[5]: 29–31 [3]: 7–13 [4]: 153–154 In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction".[30] This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.[31][32] In 2005, scientific research investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age.[33] Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.[29] People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.[34][35] Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.[36] Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.[37][page needed] Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.[26][38] In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Dutch psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors directly connected with procreation can, strictly speaking, be described as feminine or masculine, and yet every society worldwide recognizes many additional behaviors as more suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus femininity" as one of five basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions. Hofstede describes as feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes as feminine those countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life, and the resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation.[39][40] In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.[41] Clothing and appearance Main articles: Physical attractiveness § Female, and Clothing § Gender differentiation See also: Gendered associations of pink and blue In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair.[2][42][43] In other cultures, however, some expectations are different. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine.[44] Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink was associated with boys and blue with girls.[45] These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist.[43][46] In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the modern feminine ideal of thinness.[47] Muslim woman wearing a headdress (Hijab) In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty and morality.[48][49] Some, however, see it as a symbol of objectification and oppression.[50][51] In history In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.[52][53] In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.[54] The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[54] Body alteration Main article: Body alteration Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[55] One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women. For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful.[56][57] In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty.[58] The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for instance, practice this form of body modification.[59][60] In China until the twentieth century, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine In China until the twentieth century, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.[61] The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.[61] Traditional roles Main article: Gender roles Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar (c. 2008). Primary and secondary school teaching is often considered a feminine occupation. Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that treats men and masculinity as different from, and opposite to, women and femininity.[8] In patriarchal societies, including Western ones, conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to the subordination of women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less prone to violence.[8] Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles.[62] These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.[63] Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality[64] and the gender pay gap.[65] Certain medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are dominated by a masculine culture[66] and have a higher salary.[67][68] Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.[69] However, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.[70] Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.[70] Explanations for occupational imbalance Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.[71] The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.[63] Role congruity theory Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively. It supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other. It is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[72][73][74][75][76] Religion and politics The Altai consider shamanism a feminine role.[77] Asian religions Shamanism may have originated as early as the Paleolithic period, predating all organized religions.[78][79] Archeological finds have suggested that the earliest known shamans were female,[80] and contemporary shamanic roles such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women.[81][82] In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe[83] and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation. Yin and yang In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[84] Abrahamic theology Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia Although the Abrahamic God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or king—many theologians argue that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God.[85] According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, God "is neither man nor woman: he is God".[86] Several recent writers, such as feminist theologian Sallie McFague, have explored the idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah, God is compared to a mother comforting her child, while in the Book of Deuteronomy, God is said to have given birth to Israel.[85] The Book of Genesis describes the divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo. In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is described as feminine. In many books of the Old Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach, wisdom is personified and called she. According to David Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must be intimately identified with God.[87] The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah, in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine.[citation needed] In Christian Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perception) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the creation of the Universe.[88] Communism Porcelain statue of a woman in communist China - Cat Street Market, Hong Kong Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood as muscular, plainly dressed and strong,[89] with good female communists shown as undertaking hard manual labour, using guns, and eschewing self-adornment.[90] Contemporary Western journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish" perversions.[91][92] In revolutionary China in the 1950s, Western journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail polish" and wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all day, without seeing a skirt or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of perfume; without hearing the click of high heels, or catching the glint of legs sheathed in nylon."[93][94] In communist Poland, changing from high heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the bourgeois to socialism."[95] Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity as strong and hard-working began to also include more traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral virtue,[89][96]: 53 requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres", including working at jobs not traditionally regarded as feminine in nature.[96]: 55–60 Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois and consumerist, such as helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed, Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote about "a complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us – we don't even look like women. There are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste. There is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no nice lingerie[']"[97] : 31 and "Sometimes I think the real Iron Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful clothes, of pictures from women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more dangerous than any secret weapon, because they make one desire that 'otherness' badly enough to risk one's life trying to escape."[97] : 28–9 As communist countries such as Romania and the Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers and plain-Jane factory hand" depictions they had previously been publishing. As perfumes, cosmetics, fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary, they began to be presented not as bourgeois frivolities but as signs of socialist modernity.[98] In China, with the economic liberation started by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s, the state stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist ideology began to rise.[99] In men See also: Effeminacy Man seen in profile wearing makeup, with flowers arranged on a headband high on his head; a rainbow-lolored lanyard around his neck reads "Suffolk Pride" Flowers and makeup are stereotypically associated with femininity in Western culture.[100][101] In many cultures, men who display qualities considered feminine are often stigmatized and labeled as weak.[8] Effeminate men are often associated with homosexuality,[102][103] although femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexual orientation.[104] Because men are pressured to be masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the way one is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality.[105][106] Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity by men that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western cultures. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are often called cross-dressers.[107] A drag queen is a man who wears flamboyant women's clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for entertainment purposes. Feminist views Part of a series on Feminism Pink Venus symbol.svg History Intersectional variants Conservative variants Religious variants Movements and ideologies Concepts Outlooks Theory By country Lists and categories Feminism portal vte See also: Feminism Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir[108] contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[109] Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[110] Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists, argue that feminism should not devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[111][112] Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men is consistent with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity directly threatens the notion of male superiority as well as the idea that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced by women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to respond negatively to sons who like Barbie dolls and ballet or wear nail polish than they are to daughters exhibiting comparably masculine behaviours.[113]: 284–292 Julia Serano's transfeminist critique Unbalanced scales.svg This section may lend undue weight to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. Please help improve it by rewriting it in a balanced fashion that contextualizes different points of view. (July 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In her 2007 book Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity, American transsexual writer and biologist Julia Serano offers a transfeminist critique of femininity, notable especially for its call to empower femininity:[113][114] Serano notes that some behaviors, such as frequent smiling or avoiding eye contact with strangers, are considered feminine because they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from women's attempts to negotiate through a world which is sometimes hostile to them.[113]: 322 Serano argues that because contemporary culture is sexist, it assigns negative connotations to, or trivializes, behaviours understood to be feminine such as gossiping, behaving emotionally or decorating. It also recasts and reimagines femininity through a male heterosexual lens, for example interpreting women's empathy and altruism as husband-and-child-focused rather than globally focused, and interpreting women's interest in aesthetics as intended solely to entice or attract men.[113]: 327–8 See also Feminine psychology Feminism Feminization (sociology) Effeminacy Gender role Gender studies Marianismo Masculinity Nature versus nurture Sociology of gender Transfeminine 보지는 愛이고 유방은 慈이다. 사람간의 관계라는 것은 마음에 달렸다. 무슨 미모고, 품격이고, 신분이고 그런거 필요없다. 실제로 맛좋은 보지를 만나서 매일같이 끌어안고 살면 좋겠지만, 실제의 부부관계라는 것은 그게 아니다 우리가 보건대, 이 섹스, 성교, 부부관계라는 것은, 실제로는 그다지는 좋아하지 않는데, 그것을 억지로 끌어붙여서 앵기는 수단이자 도구이지 그게 전부가 아니다. 예를 들어서, 섹스 에로틱 관능 흥분 성적매력이 전혀 없는 상태에서 두 남녀가 같이 산다고 하자. 그러면 과연 어떻게 될까인데, 우리가 보건대는, 이 섹스, 에로틱, 관능, 성적매력이라는 것은, 실제로는 서로 부대끼고 싫고 혐오스런 부분들에 대한 보완이다. 요게 없다면 정말 좋아하는 그런 사이가 아니라면, 대부분은 땀냄새나고 혐오감들고 부대끼는 그런 마음의 작용들로 인해서 그렇게 좋은 사이로 살수 없다. 애초부터 친화력이 있는 친족 혈족 관계라든지 동족관계라든지 그런 사이에서도 더 친밀감이 들고 가까운 오누이같은 사이라든지 혹은 영적인 친밀감, 친화력이 있는 사이가 아니면, 어차피 살아온 환경이 틀리고 생각하는 것이 다르다. 그래서 이런 것이 없으면, 금방 싫어지기 마련이다. 처음에는 한미모하고 늘씬하고 뭐 이것 저것 따지겠지만, 좀 지나면 그게 그거고, 다 같은데다가 같은 환경조건에서 살아온 친화력이나 친밀도가 적은 경우는 그 사람의 단점이나 흉한 면모만 두드러지게 보이기 마련이다. 여기서 중요한 것은 아주 오랜 세월이전부터 같이 지내온 친밀도 친화력이 있는 영적인 관계도표상에서 친구사이라든지 가까운 동지 동료사이가 아니라면 좌우지간 가깝게 매일 같은 이불 덮고 홀라당 벗고 같이 자는 사이에서는 불편함과 부대낌이 필연적으로 생길 것이다. 네가 진심으로 나를 좋아하고 아껴준다는 것이 느껴진다면 나도 그렇게 할 것이다. 이런 관점이다. 그런 건 솔직히 맛좋은 보지나 맛없는 보지나 무관계하다. 진심으로 좋아한다거나 생각해준다는 것은 무엇인고 하면, 그냥 저 사람이 한없이 좋아진다는 관점으로 표현된다. 내가 나를 진심으로 대하고 좋아해주는 사람을 나쁘게 대할수 없다. 이런 관점은 아주 오랜기간 사람으로서 살아보아야 알게 된다. 영적인 관계상에서 보면, 일단 무조건 소통되고 일치되어야 한다. 하지만 사람은 그렇지 않다. 영적인 관점은 파충류종족들이 말하는 동족관계와 유사하다. 일단 무조건 소통된다. 무조건 맘에 든다. 이런 점이다. 하지만 사람이 되면 다르다. 사람이란 존재는 그렇게 될수가 없는 것이다. 힐다라는 중국년이 자행하는 짓거리나 생각행동거지를 보면 이게 사람으로는 살아본적도 없고, 사람으로 말하면 유인원 단계도 안될 수준의 것들이다. 보지는 愛고 유방은 慈이다. 이 관점은, 진심에서 우러나오는 것들은 꼭 무슨 말이 필요치 아니하고 그것은 행동으로서 언행으로서 결과로서 그대로 가슴과 가슴속에 전이된다. 그게 나는 너를 무척 좋아하게 되었다라는 결과로서 나타난다. 거짓과 위증 그리고 음모는, 모든 진실을 파괴하고 모든 사랑의 마음들을 멍들게 한다. 우리가 중국놈들을 매우 싫어하는 이유다. 이게 중국놈들의 문제다. 그래서 중국을 경계하라는 것이다. 물론 중국이 공산사회주의가 된 이후는 좀 다르다. 하지만 그 이전의 중국은 참으로 고약하다. 이 거짓과 위증 음모는 공맹사상의 핵심이다. 공자놈과 맹자놈이 공자왈 맹자왈하지만 이들의 사상속에는 참됨이 없고, 힐다년의 미친년 같은 짓거리가 형상화되어 있을 뿐이다. 중국사상이란 것이 다 그렇다. 짐승수준도 안 되는 아수라수준의 작태들이 바로 중국이다. 그러나 이들은 이러한 것들이 아주 잘난 것으로 여긴다. 심모원려하다거나 지모와 지략이 뛰어났다고 여기고 제왕이나 황제의 기본이라고 여기고 제자백가가 다 선호한다. 그러나 그건 아주 낮은 단계의 짐승에 불과한 생각들이다.

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무서운요마, 내 몸속으로 미친듯이 기어들어와서 기생하면서 나의 것을 이용해서 전적으로 나의 것만 사용이용해서 일을 하는데, 섹스,정사, 쾌락, 부정정교, 부정사음등 섹스쾌락질은 딴 놈하고 즐기고, 일하면서 얻어지는 이익도 딴 놈에게 주고 그러면서도 매일같이 나에게 기어들어와서 같이 살려고 하는데, 마치 나를 생각하거나 나와 부부관계, 연인관계인 듯 보이게 하면서도 이게 정상적인 사람이 아닌 일종의 요마,요귀인데, 어떻게 보면, 부부관계,연인관계로 있다는 식인 듯도 보이도록 딴 사람들에게 표현하면서도 실제는 딴 놈들에게만 섹스정사 쾌락질 주고, 이익, 명예, 칭찬, 처우, 대접등 좋은 건 전부 딴 놈들에게 주면서 나와는, 하급하전민 최하위한국놈으로서 살아온 인생살이에서의 부부관계로서 행하는데, 그러면서도, 상위상급상천계에 있는 나의 다른 실체들에게는 나로서 위위형해서 나를 위해서 같이 사는 여자라든지 부부라든지 혹은 나의 그 자신이라는 식으로 표현하면서 속이며, 이 사람이 그걸 하자고 하는데, 그걸 좀 빌려달라거나 하는 수법으로 상위상천상급계의 또 다른 나를 속이고 좋은 걸 얻은후, 그걸로 또 뭔가를 하는데, 거기서 얻어지는 이익은 또 딴놈들에게만 주고, 섹스쾌락도 딴 놈에게만 주는데, 그러면서도 가장 하위의 천한 한국놈으로서의 부부관계만 유지하는데, 그나마도 제 년 보지구멍도 개방하지 않고 만들어진 최하급보지구멍을 개방하는데, 요건 부부관계하면 조금도 안 좋고 피곤만하고 사람을 죽이는 보지로서 개발된 것이며, 그러는 가운데, 부부관계에 흥미가 떨어져서 안 하면 그 안하는 정력과 차단된 정염들을 모조리 빼내어서 그걸 가지고 또 나가서 딴 놈하고 즐기고 애까지 낳고 온갖 지랄을 치는데,또 내게 와서 스며들고 기생하고, 또 내게는 내가 너를 생각해서 그렇게 해 준다는 뉘앙스를 풍기고, 재난중에 재난이고 재앙중에 재앙인 이 더러운 요귀 요마에 대해서 무조건 보지를 찢어버리고 자지를 잘라버리며, 무조건 목을 잘라서 죽여버리도록 지시명령처리기록되다. 무르데크연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조, VECAN-VEGA연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 이 개잡년으로서의 요괴 요마에 대해서 특별추적팀을 편성하여 지속적 항구적 항속적 종신적 영원적 영속적 영구적 영겁적으로 일괄소급하여 영원에 걸쳐서 추적하여 무조건 잡히면 참살하여 죽여버리도록 지시명령처리기록되다. 하급한국인으로서의 결혼관계를 청산토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 김선희라고 불리는 여자와의 모든 혼인관계에 종지부를 찍고 이혼토록(서기2006년 3월부 이혼처리) 지시명령처리기록되다. 마거릿힐다대처가 더러운 요귀요마로서 아무 것도 주는 것은 없이 나의 것들을 마음대로 쓰고 종국에는 내가 되어서 플레이아데스인의 지위서열등급을 그대로 도적질하기 위해서 이번에는 하급한국놈의 결혼생활까지 침입해오는데, 그것도 이재용이 놈이 내 역할을 하는 맵으로서 그렇게 하고 있으므로 이 천하의 요귀요마잡년을 무조건 발견즉시 참수형에 처하고 무조건 죽여버리도록 지시명령처리기록되다. 불리하면 총리복장으로 나타나서 바로 옆에 오며, 조폭동원한 주먹질발길질을 하지 아니하고 정상적인 분위기로 싹 바꿔놓고 유리하면 조폭폭력배데리고 들어와서 주먹질 발길질을 시키는 천하의 시정잡배같은 개잡년으로서 절대로 신분지위에 합당한 처우대접을 해주어서는 아니되는 것으로서 지시명령처리기록되다. 시정잡배, 하전민으로서 처우토록 플레이아데스연방과 플레이아데스연합과 과거플레이아데스연합과 VECAN-VEGA에서 실시실행실천토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 무르데크연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다 영국에 대해서 FIRST STAGE, SECOND STAGE모두 공히 일괄소급하여, 모든 보급물자의 지원을 완전히 끊고 모든 지원과 공급을 중단토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 아울러서 영국여왕, 영국왕의 지위를 평민왕으로 최하급왕의 지위로 격하시키도록 감급감등토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 아울러서, 중국계백인종들에 대한 분포도 조사를 실시하고, 영국왕가의 혈통에 대하여 정밀조사하여, 중국황제의 자손들에 대해서는 전원 왕실혈통에서 파문추방시키고, 중국황제의 자손을 낳아준 영국여왕 및 영국여자들에 대해서는 전원 파문후 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 영국여왕을 파문토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 영국총리 마거릿힐다대처를 파문후 중국으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다.  중국계백인들을 전원 고위공직에서 파면처리하며, 평민으로서만 살게하며, 원본래적백인종 민족종족으로 복구토록 지시명령처리기록되다. VECAN-VEGA연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다. 영국여왕의 남편들에 대해서 일제히 조사하여, 중국황제놈들인 경우 무조건 파문처리후 중국으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 마거릿힐다대처영국총리의 남편들에 대해서 조사하여 중국황제놈들이거나 중국놈들일 경우 무조건 파문처리후 중국으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 마거릿힐다대처년을 훈족의 본거지 몽골근처 고원으로 추방토록 지시명령처리기록되다. VECAN-VEGA연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다. 아플레이아데스 훈족선비족흉노족 고투르크족 수장놈들 전원에 대해서 체포하여 무르데크연합원로원에서 사형처리토록 지시명령처리기록되다. 무르데크연합원로원 지시명령서 제1조로서 지시명령처리기록되다.

Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed,[1][2] and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors.[1][3][4][5] To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.[3][4][5] It is conceptually distinct from both the female biological sex and from womanhood, as all humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits, regardless of sex and gender.[2]

Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness, empathy, humility, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary across societies and individuals, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors.

Overview and history

The Birth of Venus (1486, Uffizi) is a classic representation of femininity painted by Sandro Botticelli.[6][7] Venus was a Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty and fertility.

Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are.[3]: 5  Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings.[8]

Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking society began during the medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s.[9] Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, or widow.[9]: 4  After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around 1380.[10][11]

In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economic fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman".[12] The idea was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman[13] and in 1990 by American philosopher Judith Butler,[14] who theorized that gender is not fixed or inherent but is rather a socially defined set of practices and traits that have, over time, grown to become labelled as feminine or masculine.[15] Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious, ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for anything requiring muscular exertion" and to project "shyness, reserve and a display of frailty, fear and incompetence".[16]

Scientific efforts to measure femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their M–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists. The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured, opposite to one another, and that imbalances between them led to mental disorders.[17]

Alongside the women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move away from the M–F model, developing an interest in androgyny.[17] The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests, researchers found that the two dimensions varied independently of one another, casting doubt on the earlier view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities.[17]

Second-wave feminists, influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences between females and males were innate, the concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed, with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to men.[18][19] Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television, and school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors.[18] In her significant 1963 book The Feminine Mystique, American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that the key to women's subjugation lay in the social construction of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent,[20] and called for a "drastic reshaping of the cultural image of femininity."[21]

Behavior and personality

See also: Sex differences in psychology, Feminine psychology, and Nature versus nurture

Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness,[8] supportiveness,[22][23] gentleness, [23][24] warmth,[22][24] passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness,[17] modesty, humility, empathy,[23] affection, tenderness,[22] and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding[24] have been cited as stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within societies.[22]

An oil painting of a young woman dressed in a flowing, white dress sitting on a chair with a red drape. An easel rests on her knees and she is evidently drawing. She is gazing directly at the observer.

Young Woman Drawing (1801, Metropolitan Museum of Art) painted by Marie-Denise Villers (possibly a self-portrait), depicts an independent feminine spirit.[25]

The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by scholars, as femininity is related to women's and girls' sexual appeal to men and boys.[8] Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification.[26][27] Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine.[27]

Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors.[5]: 29 [28][29] Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development.[5]: 29 [4]: 218–225  Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined.[3]: 8–9 [4]: 153–154  Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood).[5]: 29–31 [3]: 7–13 [4]: 153–154 

In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction".[30] This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.[31][32] In 2005, scientific research investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age.[33] Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.[29]

People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.[34][35] Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.[36]

Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.[37][page needed] Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.[26][38]

In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Dutch psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors directly connected with procreation can, strictly speaking, be described as feminine or masculine, and yet every society worldwide recognizes many additional behaviors as more suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus femininity" as one of five basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions. Hofstede describes as feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes as feminine those countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life, and the resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation.[39][40]

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.[41]

Clothing and appearance

Main articles: Physical attractiveness § Female, and Clothing § Gender differentiation

See also: Gendered associations of pink and blue

In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair.[2][42][43] In other cultures, however, some expectations are different. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine.[44] Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink was associated with boys and blue with girls.[45]

These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist.[43][46] In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the modern feminine ideal of thinness.[47]

Muslim woman wearing a headdress (Hijab)

In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty and morality.[48][49] Some, however, see it as a symbol of objectification and oppression.[50][51]

In history

In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity

Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.[52][53]

In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.[54]

The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[54]

Body alteration

Main article: Body alteration

Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[55] One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful.[56][57]

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty.[58] The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for instance, practice this form of body modification.[59][60]

In China until the twentieth century, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine

In China until the twentieth century, tiny, bound feet for women were considered aristocratic and feminine

 

The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.[61]

The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.[61]

Traditional roles

Main article: Gender roles

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar (c. 2008). Primary and secondary school teaching is often considered a feminine occupation.

Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that treats men and masculinity as different from, and opposite to, women and femininity.[8] In patriarchal societies, including Western ones, conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to the subordination of women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less prone to violence.[8]

Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles.[62] These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.[63] Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality[64] and the gender pay gap.[65] Certain medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are dominated by a masculine culture[66] and have a higher salary.[67][68]

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.[69] However, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.[70] Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.[70]

Explanations for occupational imbalance

Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.[71]

The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.[63]

Role congruity theory

Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively. It supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other. It is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[72][73][74][75][76]

Religion and politics

The Altai consider shamanism a feminine role.[77]

Asian religions

Shamanism may have originated as early as the Paleolithic period, predating all organized religions.[78][79] Archeological finds have suggested that the earliest known shamans were female,[80] and contemporary shamanic roles such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women.[81][82]

In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe[83] and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation.

Yin and yang

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[84]

Abrahamic theology

Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia

Although the Abrahamic God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or king—many theologians argue that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God.[85] According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, God "is neither man nor woman: he is God".[86] Several recent writers, such as feminist theologian Sallie McFague, have explored the idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah, God is compared to a mother comforting her child, while in the Book of Deuteronomy, God is said to have given birth to Israel.[85]

The Book of Genesis describes the divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo. In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is described as feminine. In many books of the Old Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach, wisdom is personified and called she. According to David Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must be intimately identified with God.[87]

The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah, in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine.[citation needed]

In Christian Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perception) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the creation of the Universe.[88]

Communism

Porcelain statue of a woman in communist China - Cat Street Market, Hong Kong

Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood as muscular, plainly dressed and strong,[89] with good female communists shown as undertaking hard manual labour, using guns, and eschewing self-adornment.[90] Contemporary Western journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish" perversions.[91][92] In revolutionary China in the 1950s, Western journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail polish" and wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all day, without seeing a skirt or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of perfume; without hearing the click of high heels, or catching the glint of legs sheathed in nylon."[93][94] In communist Poland, changing from high heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the bourgeois to socialism."[95]

Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity as strong and hard-working began to also include more traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral virtue,[89][96]: 53  requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres", including working at jobs not traditionally regarded as feminine in nature.[96]: 55–60 

Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois and consumerist, such as helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed, Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote about "a complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us – we don't even look like women. There are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste. There is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no nice lingerie[']"[97] : 31  and "Sometimes I think the real Iron Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful clothes, of pictures from women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more dangerous than any secret weapon, because they make one desire that 'otherness' badly enough to risk one's life trying to escape."[97] : 28–9 

As communist countries such as Romania and the Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers and plain-Jane factory hand" depictions they had previously been publishing. As perfumes, cosmetics, fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary, they began to be presented not as bourgeois frivolities but as signs of socialist modernity.[98] In China, with the economic liberation started by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s, the state stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist ideology began to rise.[99]

In men

See also: Effeminacy

Man seen in profile wearing makeup, with flowers arranged on a headband high on his head; a rainbow-lolored lanyard around his neck reads "Suffolk Pride"

Flowers and makeup are stereotypically associated with femininity in Western culture.[100][101]

In many cultures, men who display qualities considered feminine are often stigmatized and labeled as weak.[8] Effeminate men are often associated with homosexuality,[102][103] although femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexual orientation.[104] Because men are pressured to be masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the way one is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality.[105][106]

Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity by men that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western cultures. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are often called cross-dressers.[107] A drag queen is a man who wears flamboyant women's clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for entertainment purposes.

Feminist views

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Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir[108] contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[109]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[110]

Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists, argue that feminism should not devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[111][112]

Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men is consistent with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity directly threatens the notion of male superiority as well as the idea that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced by women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to respond negatively to sons who like Barbie dolls and ballet or wear nail polish than they are to daughters exhibiting comparably masculine behaviours.[113]: 284–292 

Julia Serano's transfeminist critique

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In her 2007 book Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity, American transsexual writer and biologist Julia Serano offers a transfeminist critique of femininity, notable especially for its call to empower femininity:[113][114]

Serano notes that some behaviors, such as frequent smiling or avoiding eye contact with strangers, are considered feminine because they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from women's attempts to negotiate through a world which is sometimes hostile to them.[113]: 322 

Serano argues that because contemporary culture is sexist, it assigns negative connotations to, or trivializes, behaviours understood to be feminine such as gossiping, behaving emotionally or decorating. It also recasts and reimagines femininity through a male heterosexual lens, for example interpreting women's empathy and altruism as husband-and-child-focused rather than globally focused, and interpreting women's interest in aesthetics as intended solely to entice or attract men.[113]: 327–8 

See also

Feminine psychology

Feminism

Feminization (sociology)

Effeminacy

Gender role

Gender studies

Marianismo

Masculinity

Nature versus nurture

Sociology of gender

Transfeminine

보지는 愛이고 유방은 慈이다.

사람간의 관계라는 것은 마음에 달렸다. 무슨 미모고, 품격이고, 신분이고 그런거 필요없다. 실제로 맛좋은 보지를 만나서 매일같이 끌어안고 살면 좋겠지만, 실제의 부부관계라는 것은 그게 아니다

우리가 보건대, 이 섹스, 성교, 부부관계라는 것은, 실제로는 그다지는 좋아하지 않는데, 그것을 억지로 끌어붙여서 앵기는 수단이자 도구이지 그게 전부가 아니다. 예를 들어서, 섹스 에로틱 관능 흥분 성적매력이 전혀 없는 상태에서 두 남녀가 같이 산다고 하자. 그러면 과연 어떻게 될까인데, 우리가 보건대는, 이 섹스, 에로틱, 관능, 성적매력이라는 것은, 실제로는 서로 부대끼고 싫고 혐오스런 부분들에 대한 보완이다. 요게 없다면 정말 좋아하는 그런 사이가 아니라면, 대부분은 땀냄새나고 혐오감들고 부대끼는 그런 마음의 작용들로 인해서 그렇게 좋은 사이로 살수 없다.

애초부터 친화력이 있는 친족 혈족 관계라든지 동족관계라든지 그런 사이에서도 더 친밀감이 들고 가까운 오누이같은 사이라든지 혹은 영적인 친밀감, 친화력이 있는 사이가 아니면, 어차피 살아온 환경이 틀리고 생각하는 것이 다르다. 그래서 이런 것이 없으면, 금방 싫어지기 마련이다. 처음에는 한미모하고 늘씬하고 뭐 이것 저것 따지겠지만, 좀 지나면 그게 그거고, 다 같은데다가 같은 환경조건에서 살아온 친화력이나 친밀도가 적은 경우는 그 사람의 단점이나 흉한 면모만 두드러지게 보이기 마련이다. 여기서 중요한 것은 아주 오랜 세월이전부터 같이 지내온 친밀도 친화력이 있는 영적인 관계도표상에서 친구사이라든지 가까운 동지 동료사이가 아니라면 좌우지간 가깝게 매일 같은 이불 덮고 홀라당 벗고 같이 자는 사이에서는 불편함과 부대낌이 필연적으로 생길 것이다.

네가 진심으로 나를 좋아하고 아껴준다는 것이 느껴진다면 나도 그렇게 할 것이다. 이런 관점이다. 그런 건 솔직히 맛좋은 보지나 맛없는 보지나 무관계하다. 진심으로 좋아한다거나 생각해준다는 것은 무엇인고 하면, 그냥 저 사람이 한없이 좋아진다는 관점으로 표현된다. 내가 나를 진심으로 대하고 좋아해주는 사람을 나쁘게 대할수 없다. 이런 관점은 아주 오랜기간 사람으로서 살아보아야 알게 된다. 영적인 관계상에서 보면, 일단 무조건 소통되고 일치되어야 한다. 하지만 사람은 그렇지 않다. 영적인 관점은 파충류종족들이 말하는 동족관계와 유사하다. 일단 무조건 소통된다. 무조건 맘에 든다. 이런 점이다. 하지만 사람이 되면 다르다. 사람이란 존재는 그렇게 될수가 없는 것이다. 힐다라는 중국년이 자행하는 짓거리나 생각행동거지를 보면 이게 사람으로는 살아본적도 없고, 사람으로 말하면 유인원 단계도 안될 수준의 것들이다.

보지는 愛고 유방은 慈이다. 이 관점은, 진심에서 우러나오는 것들은 꼭 무슨 말이 필요치 아니하고 그것은 행동으로서 언행으로서 결과로서 그대로 가슴과 가슴속에 전이된다. 그게 나는 너를 무척 좋아하게 되었다라는 결과로서 나타난다. 거짓과 위증 그리고 음모는, 모든 진실을 파괴하고 모든 사랑의 마음들을 멍들게 한다. 우리가 중국놈들을 매우 싫어하는 이유다. 이게 중국놈들의 문제다. 그래서 중국을 경계하라는 것이다. 물론 중국이 공산사회주의가 된 이후는 좀 다르다. 하지만 그 이전의 중국은 참으로 고약하다. 이 거짓과 위증 음모는 공맹사상의 핵심이다. 공자놈과 맹자놈이 공자왈 맹자왈하지만 이들의 사상속에는 참됨이 없고, 힐다년의 미친년 같은 짓거리가 형상화되어 있을 뿐이다. 중국사상이란 것이 다 그렇다. 짐승수준도 안 되는 아수라수준의 작태들이 바로 중국이다. 그러나 이들은 이러한 것들이 아주 잘난 것으로 여긴다. 심모원려하다거나 지모와 지략이 뛰어났다고 여기고 제왕이나 황제의 기본이라고 여기고 제자백가가 다 선호한다. 그러나 그건 아주 낮은 단계의 짐승에 불과한 생각들이다.